Leadership of change, Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst

Introduction

Top of human culture is created by personalities. Those words belong to Esa Saarinen, from Helsinki University cathedra of philosophy. In book ”History of philosophy, top to top, from Socrates to Marx” she is trying to find answer how much philosophers have influenced history. If we look world wider, there are many other great personalities who have had large influence over historical events. In this article we are looking back to the end of eighteens- and beginning of nineteenths century, in the era of French revolution and Napoleonic wars. We are studying lieutenant general Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst role in transformation of Prussian army. Why where changes in Prussia necessary? How did the Scharnhorst collect information, design the transformation, achieve acceptance and ensure its implementation, to what extent changes where success and what we can learn from that today? 

General Scharnhorst was an interesting person due to the fact that he was a teacher to famous and well known war theoretic Carl von Clausewitz. His reflection in history books is limited because few papers of Prussian officers survived Second World War and as Charles Eduard White seas in his book “The enlightened soldier”: 

To date, no Biography of Scharnhorst exists in England. In fact, the Prussian reform era has been largely ignored by contemporary historians fascinated (and in some cases obsessed) by Nazi Germany.  

Today Prussia as country dose not exist anymore, there is only memory about brave troops who arrived 1815 to Waterloo battlefield in the last minute to save Wellingtons army from collapse.

Development of personality

Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst was born 12. November 1755 in small village near Hanover place called Bordenau, he grew up in tenant farm with his father. His low (middle class) origin played roll in development of his character to a military leader. Before his death he wrote letter to his daughter, Julie, and revealed real ambitions and dissatisfaction that his work was not appreciated enough. 

He wrote: “I want nothing from the world. What I desire she does not give me anyway. If I recover soon, I shall somehow be able to settle things. A certain post is destined for me as soon as I am well again: a curios one. But this does not matter to me. If I were given supreme command I would greatly appreciate it, because I believe myself in all respect fully capable of it. As that is impossible, everything else is indifferent to me...All seven orders and my life I would give for the command of a single day.” 

At seventeen Scharnhorst entered the military academy of Count Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst zu Schaumburg-Lippe-Bückeburg (1724-1777). Later one the best students of Scharnhorst Gneisenau, as early bibliographer wrote: “You have given count Lippe very high praise, but still far from his true deserts: he was even greater than you suggest.”  Count Lippe was educated and had quit modern approach toward education. From that we can conclude that this school made strong fundament and shaped Scharnhorst’s habits for following years. 

After four years study, in 1778, Scharnhorst received a commission in the Hanoverian service. Regimental commander General Emmerich Otto August von Estorff (1722-1796) promptly recognized his teaching abilities and posted him to Nordheim, to the regiment school faculty. 1778 Scharnhorst, in his letter to family, expressed great happiness and satisfaction with his assignment, “I lecture six hours a week, two on mathematics, two on tactics, and two on engineering sciences”.  

1783 he received an appointment to the new artillery school in Hanover. Artillery units where not among nobilities prestigious place for service, because it required some knowledge and education. Over the centuries there emerged among the aristocracy a deeply rooted prejudice against work and education . Thanks for that impoverished noble families had chance to educate his children. Similarly future emperor of the French and king of Italy Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) also got his military career started from Military school of Brienne where he studied artillery.

After arrival to Hannover Scharnhorst founded a military journal which under various names endured till 1805. Three years after he established a wide reputation as writer and educator. 1788 Scharnhorst designed, and in part published, a Handbuch für Offiziere in den anwendbaren Teilen der Kriegswissenschaften ("Handbook for Officers in the Applied Sections of Military Science"). He also published in 1792 his Militärisches Taschenbuch für den Gebrauch im Felde ("Military Handbook for Use in the Field"), this handbook was “on of the most widely used practical guide” of its time. 

Collecting and sharing experience

His first campaign, where Scharnhorst has chance to exercise his academic competence, took place in 1793 in the Netherlands, in which he served under the Duke of York (1763-1827) with distinction. In 1794 he took part in the defense of Menin and following the escape of the garrison. Shortly thereafter he received promotion to the rank of major and joined the staff of the Hanoverian contingent.

After the peace of Basel (5 March 1795) Scharnhorst returned to Hanover. Upon his return, on age of forty, Scharnhorst began to summarize his resent combat experience. 

His reaction was clearly stated in series articles, the most notable where Vertheidigung der Stadt Menin ("Defence of the Town of Menin") (Hanover, 1803), and Die Ursachen des Glücks der Franzosen im Revolutionskrieg ("The Origins of the Good Fortune of the French in the Revolutionary War"). A major aspect of all French planning was the close coordination of military and political action . This was crucial Scharnhorst believed.

Through those articles he realized need for Hanoverian army to change. Scharnhorst start to: advocate better education for officers and noncommissioned officers, promotion to the rank of lieutenant by examinations, the abolition of nepotism and favoritism, a more equitable and sensible application of military justice, expansion and reequipment of the artillery, transformation of infantry tactics from linear system to a combination of attacks columns, line, and skirmishers, institution of permanent general staff, reorganization of the army into division of all arms to ensure flexibility and operational independence, realistic and intensified training, and finally the diminution of the mercenary character of the army by the introduction of conscription.  

Unfortunately, Hanover rejected his ideas, but by then Scharnhorst already become so well-known to the armies of the various allied states that he received invitations from several of them to transfer his services. This in the end led to his engaging himself to King Frederick William III of Prussia, who gave him a patent of nobility, the rank of lieutenant-colonel and a pay more than twice as large as what he had received in Hanover (1801). Here we must say that Scharnhorst changed his service place not with easy heart, negotiations to join Prussian army took more then two years.

Scharnhorst received a polite but cool reception in Berlin. To his new comrades he presented an unusual figure. He carried himself negligently, his trunk and massive head bent slightly forward. His speech lacked elegance of form; it was low-keyed, deliberate, at times halting, with Hanoverian intonation that sounded slurred to Prussian ears. Even in parade ground he displayed none of the physical tautness and smartness of manner that was becoming fashionable among some Prussian soldiers.  

Also in Prussia Scharnhorst made his far reaching reform proposals to the king and to the senior artillery commanders, which aimed at bringing Prussian organization, equipment, operational and tactical doctrines into closer agreement with those of the French. Also here all his proposals where rejected. But Frederick William did not withdraw his favor from a man who impressed him with his detailed knowledge of weapons and organization; he offered real freedom to Scharnhorst in the marginal and neglected field of higher military education.

The Berlin Military Institute employed him, almost as a matter of course, in important instructional work and he became one of the founders and active member of the Militärische Gesellschaft (Berlin Military Society). Through this society Scharnhorst had chance to advertise his ideas, exchange views and study others military experience. Members of this society were quit high ranking people like prince of Prussia August Ferdinand or Duke Karl of Mecklenburg-Streliz, brother of queen Louise ect, as well members were Scharnhorst’s students Clausewitz, Tiedemann, Johann Karl Braun, Georg Wilhelm von Hoffmann, Rühle von Lilienstern, ect. In year 1805 society had 187 members.

Work in Berlin War Institute and freedom for action given by Frederic William allowed Scharnhorst establish over the Prussia standardized military educational system for officers. Scharnhorst placed himself in a position to advance his concept of education for victory, and to convince his colleagues in the Prussian army that soldering could no longer viewed as a craft, but had to be seen as a profession requiring continuous study.

Military high education consisted from tree consecutive years of study from October to April for best of chosen become good officer. Scharnhorst understood very well that common sense and ”the experiences of the greatest captains” could not function as a coherent force in war without “a standard operating procedure” . One of the major problems Scharnhorst faced was the opposition of many regimental commanders, who failed to understand the importance of education. Opponent’s error is seen from the fact that almost 60 percent of the officers studied under guidance of Scharnhorst in Berlin Military Institute became generals .

Another integral component of Scharnhorst endeavor to built military profession was the establishment of a library. He believed that military literature had to reach beyond tactical manuals to a historical and philosophical approach to the study of war. He understood that war could not be studied in isolation. It had to analyze in context. 

In the mobilizations and precautionary measures that marked the years 1804 and 1805, and in the war of 1806 that ensued, Scharnhorst served as chief of the general staff (lieutenant-quartermaster) of the Duke of Brunswick, received a slight wound at Auerstadt (14 October 1806) and distinguished himself by his stern resolution during the retreat of the Prussian army. He attached himself to Blücher in the last stages of the disastrous campaign, went into captivity with him at the capitulation of Ratekau (7 November 1806), and, quickly exchanged, had a prominent and almost decisive part in leading L'Estocq's Prussian corps which served with the Russians. For his services at Eylau (February 1807), he received the highest Prussian military order Pour le Mérite.

It had become apparent that Scharnhorst's skills exceeded those of a merely brilliant staff officer. By slow and labored steps Scharnhorst converted the professional long-service army of Prussia, wrecked at Jena (1806), into a national army based on universal service. He gained promotion to major-general a few days after the Peace of Tilsit (July 1807) 

Time for reforms

Disaster at Jena and Auerstadt in 1806 shook the foundation of Prussian military theory and practice, furnishing an impetus for analysis and reform. To many civil servants and officers in summer of 1807 the defeat seemed to offer opportunities for change in Prussia. For monarchies the reform was not merely a desirable possibility, but necessary for survival.  

Scharnhorst became the head of a reform commission which included the best of the younger officers, such as Gneisenau, Grolman and Boyen. Scharnhorst had a free access to King Frederick William III by his appointment as aide-de-camp-general, but anyhow being political and intellectual leader of the military reforms Scharnhorst remained dependent on the trust or toleration of the king and senior generals.

Military Reorganization Commission of reformers had subcommittees who were dealing with specific problems, such as the development of tactical doctrine or design of equipment. Frame of work was divided to 19 paragraphs. First five concerned on the officer corps: investigation of its conduct during the war, punishment of those who evidently didn’t do their duty, improvement of promotion, admission greater number officers. Four points dealt with reorganization of infantry and cavalry, and formation of divisions and corps. Three paragraphs were concentrated to more practical uniforms and on release of company commanders from economical responsibilities they had. Point 6 demanded better proposition line infantry, light troops and other branches of service. Para 12 stated changes in recruiting policies, Para 15 reduction in the trains, and 16 more realistic training.

Unfortunately Napoleon quickly became suspicious, and Frederick William repeatedly had to suspend or cancel the reforms recommended.

In 1809, the war between France and Austria roused premature hopes in the patriots' party, which the conqueror did not fail to note. By direct application to Napoleon, Scharnhorst evaded the decree of 26 September 1810, which required all foreigners to leave the Prussian service forthwith, but when in 1811-1812 France forced Prussia into an alliance against Russia and Prussia dispatched an auxiliary army to serve under Napoleon's orders, Scharnhorst left Berlin on unlimited leave of absence. In retirement he wrote and published a work on firearms, Über die Wirkung des Feuergewehrs (1813). 

Napoleons retreat from Moscow (1812) at last sounded the call to arms for the new national army of Prussia. King had finally power to make reforms in use. Scharnhorst, recalled to the king's headquarters, refused a higher post but became Chief of Staff to Blücher, in whose vigour, energy, and influence with the young soldiers he had complete confidence. Russian Prince Wittgenstein was so impressed by Scharnhorst that he asked to borrow him temporarily as his Chief of Staff. Blücher agreed. In the first battle, Lützen or Gross-Görschen (2 May 1813), Prussia suffered defeat, but a very different defeat from those which Napoleon had hitherto customarily inflicted. The French failed to follow up, so this defeat was not complete. In this battle, Scharnhorst received a wound in the foot, not in itself grave, but soon made mortal by the fatigues of the retreat to Dresden, and he succumbed to it on 28 June 1813 at Prague, where he had traveled to negotiate with Schwarzenberg and Radetzky for the armed intervention of Austria. 

Shortly before his death he had received promotion to the rank of lieutenant-general. Frederick William III erected a statue in memory of him, by Rauch, in Berlin. Several German navy ships and a post-war frigate, as well as a district of the city of Dortmund, were named after him.

Reformers achievements

Scharnhorst already during his last years in Hanover had tried to convince his superiors to establish a permanent general staff. During Frederic’s reign officers of his staff where more like adjutants. For Scharnhorst was apparent that the mass armies demanded a more effective means of command and control on the battlefield. 

I am becoming more convinced every day that without a well-organized general staff no army can be well led. A poorly organized and slightly trained army with good general staff will accomplish more than a good army with a poor general staff. 

Scharnhorst created new general staff where well educated officers were advisers for commander in chief assisting him in operational planning and with tactical disposition of the army. In peace time general staff was charged with contingency planning. Certainly we must after all recognize that Scharnhorst was not creator of general staff institution, he just improved the system.

Scharnhorst established educational system and institution to prepare selected officers to perform duties of general staff. That allowed more qualified action in the battlefield. Gerhard von Scharnhorst is a counted as founder of the Berlin Military Academy. 

Second largest achievement of reformers according Peter Paret was abolition of the special claim of nobility to officer’s position. Regardless of social background all qualified subjects could aspire to every position in the army. In Commission proposal it was stated as following:

From now a claim to officer rank shall in peace time be warranted only by knowledge and education, in time of war by exceptional bravery and quickness of perception. From the whole nation, therefore, all individuals who possess these qualities can lay title to the highest positions of honor in the army. All social preferences which has hitherto existed ceased completely in the army, and everyone, without regard for his background, has equal duties and equal rights. 

Reform of state and army demanded the complete suppression of corporal punishment . Scharnhorst and his friends deeply appreciated moral dignity of the individual, they realized that it was impossible to appeal to the sense of honour and national feelings in a man as long his back was not yet safe from the corporals rode.

Reformers announced that all inhabitance of the country are its born defenders and proposed to arrange army to be constituted from standing force and militia, both recruited from the entire native population. The ranks of standing army were to be filled by conscripts from the poorer classes and presumably volunteers; the militia was to consist of those who could afford to clothe and arm themselves and who could pay for their own training. The nobility feared conscription as an egalitarian force, especially if it was coupled with a limitation of their favored access to officer rank. 

Formation of the troops was simplified; the peacetime organization was brought more in accord with likely employment on field. Also the commanders were allowed to have greater operational and tactical flexibility. New attack formations for large commands of foot and horse, such as divisions or brigades were suggested. Scharnhorst was clearly spurring on the officers in charge of training.

In the late fall of 1810 Scharnhorst persuaded the King that there should be no further delay in preparing comprehensive and definitive manuals, publications witch would be more useful for the training of army that all previously issued separate orders, which laked force and effectiveness. Thanks to that to enhance effectiveness of force the development of new manuals for artillery, infantry and cavalry was launched. 

Reasons for Scharnhorst success.

Why Scharnhorst became successful transformer of Prussian army?

First the changes in Prussia and in Europe all over were necessary. The bloodiest conflict of the eighteenth century, Seven Years War (1755 - 1763) just started when Scharnhorst was born. This war involved all of the major European powers of the period: Prussia, Hanover, and Great Britain were pitted against Austria, France, the Russian Empire, Sweden, and Saxony. Spain and Portugal were later drawn into the conflict, and a force from the neutral Netherlands was attacked in India. Long war exhausted small monarchies, this conflict declared need for the future victory large resources and changes in management. Another word there was historical momentum created for required changes. Scharnhorst was educated by men who had past this war and realized need for transformation.

Biggest changes in 18 century game by the French Revolution (1789–1799), this was a period of political and social upheaval in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on Enlightenment principles of republic, citizenship, and inalienable rights.

Subsequent events caused by the revolution include the Napoleonic wars, the restoration of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. Many new ideas from French revolution involving resentments and aspirations give focus to the rise of Enlightenment ideals over the Europe. Enlightenment thinkers believed that systematic thinking might be applied to all areas of human activity, carried into the governmental sphere in their explorations of the individual, society and the state. Its leaders believed they could lead their states to progress after a long period of tradition, irrationality, superstition, and tyranny which they imputed to the Middle Ages. We can say that Scharnhorst was certainly one of the enlightened soldiers. Following his guidance, Berlin military society studied carefully all reforms what revolution and Napoleon made. On Wilhelm Rüstow’s judgement in the area of organisation and conscription “Prussians remained the state which to the widest extent even more then French themselves, took over and retained the principles of the French Revolution”  Scharnhorst understood very well enormous energy of a free society.

Monarchial states understood that if they want to survive they have to give up some privileges. Good example of that is King Frederick William III decision to reform his country after disaster at Jena and Auerstadt in 1806. Reforms in Prussia were one of biggest factors what let him to keep the throne.

Scharnhorst character was influenced from his middle class origin. French Revolution gave opportunity also people from low origin to become high ranking officers. Such situation created for well educated and intelligent Scharnhorst to face with dilemma: How to accept your leaders who are less smart then you and not to take temptation to join French army? Probably here plays great role the Count Lippe disseminated feelings toward faithfulness, sense of duty and honor.

Scharnhorst study in military academy of Count Friedrich Wilhelm Ernst zu Schaumburg-Lippe-Bückeburg made him thirsty for knowledge. Unfortunately for nobilities at that time work was not value and dignified activity. Scharnhorst managed to escape from this preconception and create around him community who shared same enlightening values.

Scharnhorst’s control over services education enabled him to appoint as instructors men who shared his tactical views. Standardized knowledge gave large opportunity to reach success. Sometime it seemed that improving general staffs Scharnhorst just was looking a proper work for his students, actually that was the way how to introduce the knowledge to national army without threatening aristocracy. He understood that the nobility had rarely shown any zeal for formal schooling or even private study. Scharnhorst tried to achieve his goal by educating an elite and using the general staff to permeate the army with men of character and intellect. These leaders would not “command” but “assist” commanding generals. 

There has been created misunderstanding by some historians that Scharnhorst divided his students into two categories, ones who will become commanders and second who will become general staff officers. In his letters to Berlin Military Society Scharnhorst emphasized that service in general staff is just suited place to develop professional skills of officers . From that can be concluded that he believed through education to prepare also excellent, highly professional commanders. Huntington called Scharnhorst as reformer who marked true beginning of the military profession in the west. 

Scharnhorst was good teacher and team player, he had ambitions to be a leader, and he was also successful when situation allowed to act as leader. His skills correspond more to our 21 century soft top manager. His personality lacked charm necessary for leader. His speech was short from elegance; physical tautness and smartness in parade ground he displayed was not fashionable at that time.

Nevertheless his external shortfalls were compensated with necessary skills of character. Patience and perseverance are important strengths for leader and those were characteristic qualities what Scharnhorst had. Thanks to those skills he managed to implement all proposals for changes, of course with some reservation, but we can just admire his persistent over the years promoting same ideas and values. Especially when Frederick William on most issues was undecided and he changed his views frequently trough years. 

Scharnhorst was good analytic. Methods to analyze difference topics were arranged by Scharnhorst as following: Members of Military society presented papers from variety of subject areas like; elementary- and applied tactics, engineering, artillery, strategy, military history and topography. Those good military essays were basis for discussions, questions and answers. That was not only method, every officer from Military society who wants to discuss particular topic could submit his proposal by writing it on a piece of paper and placing it in the ballot box. The special committee would review all suggestions and presents them to society. Members were encouraged to submit their solution – analyses. The answers were given as soon as possible. 

Also the review of military literature had prominent place. Scharnhorst believed that works of well known authors would encourage to read more and promote an instructive discussion and disseminate useful knowledge. 

Scharnhorst managed to enhance Prussian army thanks to backing most of theories with facts. He understands that good education must be balanced with practice. Scharnhorst opposed proposed strategies since he could not believe that any law of action could ever mach the diversity of the real world. No military theorist of the time was as conscious as Scharnhorst of the innate conflict between theory and reality. His elaboration of this fundamental issue, and his refusal to seek its solution in increasingly complex abstraction, constitute the most important lesson taught to his students.

Finally Scharnhorst had good skill to use his limited possibilities to be known and heard. Writing useful and educational articles made his name in Germany well known. During his thirty five years of military service he produced many papers, lectures, articles and books deal almost exclusively with military affairs, particularly with the impact of the French revolution on the art of war. As we know from to days world importance of CNN effect, we can say that Scharnhorst used publications effectively as one mean to share experience, analyze situations and introduce personal thoughts. He constantly searched to understand the complexity of war. 

Conclusions

Historical moment to rescue monarchies in Prussia requested changes in system. Scharnhorst was well prepared to be a leader for such kind transformation. Educated in the traditions of the Seven Years' War, Scharnhorst had by degrees, as his experience widened, divested his mind of antiquated forms of war, and realized that only a "national" army and a policy of fighting decisive battles could give an adequate response to the political and strategic situation brought about by the French Revolution.

Extending the obligation for military service to all classes, however, not only meant a total change in the basis of Prussian military institutions, but profoundly interferes with the economic, social, and political customs of the country. Scharnhorst was not inventor of conscription he’s proposals were motivated from French experience study. 

Scharnhorst was not the prophet or theoretician, but rather than meticulous explorer, developer, and prefecture of prevailing ideas and methods.  That was the way how he collected information and designed transformation. His program of education for victory had been tested in the furnace of combat and had proved sound.

Thanks to the educational methods used by Scharnhorst, Prussian had staff and command system, which stated the general objective and left the individual commanders considerable leeway in how to achieve it. British officers example didn’t have such freedom of action, example in Waterloo Prussian commissioner at the Wellington headquarters Müffling urged two British brigade commanders to use a momentum and conduct cavalry attack, but they refused it, because of fear to be court-martialed for the action conducted without order. 

The tactical doctrine developed by Scharnhorst and his collaborators was in agreement with new dynamics of strategy and with the changed nature of war. The French revolution and Napoleon offered conclusive proof that soldering was no longer a craft or occupation, but a profession that required continuous study. It was Scharnhorst great achievement that he not only clearly saw this new dimension of warfare, but also attempted to develop institutions to meet the challenge of a changing art of war. The results of Scharnhorst reforms were seen in Waterloo battlefield, if we can believe Albert A. Nofi book,”The Waterloo campaign”, the number of soldiers and generals in Prussian army was most balanced. .

Recommendations

What we can learn from Scharnhorst’s reforms today? 

History is repeating himself time to time. Today most of the countries in “western world” are abolishing conscription, due to the need for “transformation” etc. Scharnhorst saw from conscription possibility to educate mankind. Conscription brought changes to economic, social, and political customs of the country. From those perspectives, governments who today are advocating fully professional armed forces must be ready to meet the challenges in mentioned areas. With abandoning conscription those countries will lose effective tool to educate good citizens. In the era of cultural tensions, what has been created though immigration, necessity to use all means in hand for integration of different religions, understandings, habits ect has grown. Scharnhorst has been saying that army is a school for the development of national spirit. 

Estonian Armed forces have educated his officers in many different countries. Result from that has been difficulty on understanding each other. Finnish and Swedish concept of education is based on total defence, officers studied in USA have been trained to command corps and divisions, Danish and German military institutions have been familiarizing our officers how to use tank unit tactics. A greatest phenomenon of Scharnhorst was that already two centuries ago he realized importance of standardized education. In critical situation the common understandings, similar reaction brings close to success. Network of standardized military educational institutions will give good result in all over the system, in general staffs, fighting- and support units, ect. Development of armed forces can be improved through standardised education.

Third lesson from Scharnhorst is his ability and insistence to back most of theories with facts. He understands that good education must be balanced with practice. Transformation is achievable only exercising theory in practice. Transformation of force  achieved only through operations, if we want to have successful response force we must use it time to time. 

Bibliography

• Nofi Albert A. (1993), The Waterloo campaign, June 1815, (Combined Books ed)

• Paret Peter (1966), York and the Era of Prussian reform, 1807-1815 (Princetone, New Jersey, Princeton University Press)

• Paret Peter (1976), Clausewitz and the State (Oxford, Clareton Press)

• Saarinen, Esa (1985), Länsimaisen filosofian historia huipulta huipulle Sokrateesta Marxiin, (Porvoo Helsinki Juva: WSOY)

• White Charles Edward (1989), The enlightened soldier, Scharnhorst and the Militarrishe Gesellschaft in Berlin 1801-1805, (Westport, USA, Greenwood Publishing Group)

• “The NATO Response Force, At the centre of NATO transformation”, NATO homepage, http://www.nato.int/issues/nrf/index.html, accessed on 09 Nov 2007